There is also a need for gender-responsive (and culturally relevant) classification tools, assessment instruments, treatment plans, and aftercare. I spoke to women who were arrested when they were in suicidal crisis. In their 1964 study published in Social Problems, Ward and Kassebaum argue that incarceration had a greater impact on women because they did not come up through the sandlots of crime in that they are not as likely as men to have had experience in training schools or reformatories. Their study emphasized other stereotypical aspects of women, concluding that women were more likely than men to form same-sex romantic attachments in prison (never less than 50 percent) because women require more emotional support. At the time, women who participated in romantic relationships suffered severe penalties, and Ward and Kassebaum report that some butch women were made to change their hairstyle to a less masculine coiffure as punishment. According to The Sentencing Project, the number of women in prison rose 646 percent between 1980 and 2010, 1.5 times the rate of men over the same period. There are more than 200,000 women and girls incarcerated nationwide, a number that has increased by more than 700 percent since 1980. These conditions compound the problem of maintaining contact with children. There's a pretty hefty gender gap in U.S. federal prisons, and prisons and jails in general. Womens mass incarceration: The whole Pie. Rates calculated per 100,000 women. Jan 2021. Many women have significant health challenges as well as emotional and behavioral disorders. Liberals and conservatives seem to agree that the cost of maintaining the worlds largest number of inmates is excessive. JSTOR, the JSTOR logo, and ITHAKA are registered trademarks of ITHAKA. Decades of tough-on-crime policies mean we now incarcerate 2.3 million people the highest rate of imprisonment in the world. Historical data for the number of women incarcerated in prisons 1910 and 1923 was calculated based on incarceration data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics' Historical Corrections Statistics in the United States, 1850-1984 (Table 3-31. The study identifies every State prison for women founded between 1835 and 1979, discussing the reasons for their establishment, the types of inmates they held, and the kinds of programs provided. (2000). As a first step in documenting how women fare in the world's carceral landscape, this report compares the incarceration rates for women of each U.S. state with the equivalent rates for countries around the world. ), Gartner and Kruttschnitt went back to CIW in the 1990sthe height of the tough on crime movementand tried to see if the results of Ward and Kassebaums study still held up. residents Hornblum, an instructor of geography and urban studies at Temple University Originally known as Pearl's Hill Prison, and Outram Prison in its later decades, it was demolished in 1963 to By 1949, the jail complex had 988 cells, spread among the criminal, remand and female prisons, 944 In 1951, the block for European convicts was converted into a new female prison Craigslist Cars Lynchburg Va competence in both systemic and individual biases Geography of female prisons must be placed . As a result, women's incarceration rates are overshadowed and often lost in the data. Female parolees have greater difficulty obtaining employment and housing than males and are at greater risk for living without homes( Bandele, 2017). About half of women coming into prison or jail have already been the victims of sexual abuse, and too often that abuse continues. Include commentary on the following issues in relation to cultural bias: Discrepancies, Describe how policing is affected by a lack of cultural competence in both systemic and individual biases. 12, No. Within the rising female prison population, theft accounted for almost 30% of womens offences in Northern Ireland in 2018, an increase over the previous two years. To isolate instead of treating those in need keeps the cycle going in the lives of countless families, at an exorbitant human and societal cost. Privacy Policy Contact Us Prisons are growing more culturally diverse as time goes on. (2003). In the 1960s, white Appalachian workers attempted to put down roots in Chicago by building an integrated model neighborhood called Hank Williams Village. Although there has been an increase in women convicted of violent crimes, most incarcerated females are serving sentences for property and drug offenses. Indeed, in England and Wales, the justice secretary, David Gauke, has called for sentences below six months to be scrapped. There are several critical problems faced by women in prison; most are unmet in the prison environment. Across the globe, the 25 jurisdictions with the highest rates of incarcerating women are all American states. In the case of state prison systems that send a large number of people to prisons in other states, or in the context of federal prisons, this Census Bureau residence determination can influence a state's incarceration rate calculated with that data. Describe how corrections is affected by a lack of cultural competence in both systemic, and individual biases. Gender-specific treatment. My research has found that in many instances, women are not remanded into custody because they commit a serious crime, but instead because of issues relating to marginality and vulnerability. Separation from children and significant others. These infractions committed by women in prison tend to be petty when compared to the more serious infractions committed by male prisoners (McClelland). One aspect of this inadequacy is that, like the training offered in the reformatories of the early 1990s, many vocational programs for female inmates emphasize traditional roles for women and work. Retrieved fromhttps://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/incarcerated-women-and-girls/. Addressing the mental health needs of women offenders. For years 1995 through 1999, and 2001 through 2004, the number of incarcerated women in jails was calculated from the Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics Online's Table 6.17.2012, Jail inmates, By sex, race, Hispanic origin, and conviction status, United States, 1990-2012 and Table 6.1.2011, Adults on probation, in jail or prison, and on parole United States, 1980-2011. She sits on the executive committee of NIACRO and is the co-director of the Gender Network at Queens University Belfast. The women's population was calculated by aggregating female population reported for all age groups in these adult correctional facilities. ACLU. Amna Nawaz takes a closer look at the conditions faced by women behind bars.. Abram, K., Teplin, L., Charles, D., Longworth, S., McClelland, G., & Dulcan, M. (2004, April). Criminal justice involvement and imprisonment has devastating impacts on the maternal-child bond with long-lasting implications (Pew Charitable Trust, 2010). Unlike prisons designed for men in the United States . Incarcerated women: Poverty, trauma and https://www.aclu.org/blog/womens-rights/women-and-criminal-justice/heres-how-prison-and-jail-systems-brutalize-women, https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/svjfry12.pdf (PDF, 1.10MB), https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/incarcerated-women-and-girls/, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2017women.html, https://storage.googleapis.com/vera-web-assets/downloads/Publications/out-of-sight-growth-of-jails-rural-america/legacy_downloads/out-of-sight-growth-of-jails-rural-america.pdf (pdf, 1.22MB), https://cjinvolvedwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Ten_Truths.pdf (PDF, 561KB), https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/women_overtime.html. In the United States, authorities began housing women in correctional facilities separate from men in the 1870s. We are implicated because of the familiarity. This leads to an unacceptable use of prison as a place of safety and containment for women, despite the harms that prison produces. The United States imprisons people at a higher rate than any other developed nation in the world. Help us keep publishing stories that provide scholarly context to the news. According to the most recent numbers published by the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP), 93.2. Girls leaving juvenile settings have great need for educational opportunities, job training, housing, mental health and mentoring services. National surveys of women prisoners find that three-fourths of them were mothers, with two-thirds having children under the age of eighteen. Gender-specific services should incorporate physical, psychological, emotional, spiritual, and sociopolitical issues in addressing these needs. When compared to jurisdictions across the globe, even the U.S. states with the lowest levels of incarceration are far out of line. Nearly 30% of the world's incarcerated women are in the United States, twice the percentage as in China and four times as much as in Russia. Women in prison have experienced victimization, unstable family life, school and work failure, and substance abuse and mental health problems. Kyndia Riley sent her mother money to help her buy supplies but that meant there wasnt money to travel to see her mom. Journal of Social History, Vol. Have a correction or comment about this article? Phone calls were expensive, and money was tight, so Rileys visits became increasingly rare. Pallot and Piacentini present . ITHAKA. For comparison we use some of our closest allies, the founding countries of the North American Treaty Organization (NATO). The impact of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse found in the experience of women offenders also creates a significant need for counseling and therapy (Pollock). These views reflected and reinforced prisoners attitudes toward and relations with each other, which were often distrustful and suspicious, but also intimately affectionate at times. In other words, women were not viewed as superpredators the same way men were. And while it's common for spikes to occur in numbers of women imprisoned, a rise to over 80 is the. Men still make up the vast majority of inmates, but women in prison face unique challenges. In fact, in situations where cash bail is required as a condition for release, more women languish in jails in pretrial detention without having been convicted of a crime (Sawyer, 2018). As women have become the fastest growing segment of the prison population, the Women's Project has emerged to address the unique problems and inequities faced by women prisoners. Include commentary on the following issues in relation to cultural, Access to our library of course-specific study resources, Up to 40 questions to ask our expert tutors, Unlimited access to our textbook solutions and explanations. 3, Centennial Symposium: A Century of Criminal Justice (Summer 2010), pp. When women spend money on basic necessities like tampons and pads, it takes away from savings that could be spent on in-person visits. During the early 19th century, the paucity of female prisoners meant that most states didnt have separate female facilities. A significant portion of West Virginia (61%), Connecticut (51%) and Minnesota's (43%) female prison population appear to be women in federal facilities located within the state's borders. American Journal of Public Health, 90(2), 258-263. 2, History of the Field of Correctional Education (June 1995), pp. Women's Prison Reform. Some 58% of women sent to prison in Northern Ireland in 2018 were whats known as remand prisoners. (2006). Accounts of prison life consistently describe a culture of mutual mistrust, fear, aggression and barely submerged violence. prisons were operating between 1% and 17% above capacity, while Federal prisons were operating at 33% above capacity. Women therefore make up a significant percentage of incarcerated persons and their unique needs and realities are they serve their terms has gained more prominence. Historically, black and brown individuals and poor persons have been over-represented in prison populations, and these demographics continue to the present. Separation from children and significant others. On some occasions these women were remanded to custody not because their charges demanded a custodial sentence, but so that they could receive psychiatric assessment, or wait for transfer to a psychiatric bed. In 2018 69% of women imprisoned in Northern Ireland were sentenced to six months or less, while 29% were sentenced to three months or less. 100, No. 1901), Lexpertise universitaire, lexigence journalistique. . JSTOR is part of ITHAKA, a not-for-profit organization helping the academic community use digital technologies to preserve the scholarly record and to advance research and teaching in sustainable ways. U.S. Department of Justice. Pregnancy and reproductive health needs are another neglected area of health care. Termination of parental rights also affect prison mothers. In the same vein, a mid-1840s report from an Ohio womens prison reported that the women fight, scratch, pull hair, curse, swear and yell, and to bring them to order a keeper has frequently to go among them with a horsewhip.. Correctional officers with improved skill sets in communicating with, understanding, and enacting various attitudes, traditions, and other customs are required today in order to place value on the diversity established by the incarceration of people of various races, ethnic groups, and demographics, whether regionally or geographically dispersed in prisons. The arrest rate of girls also has skyrocketed during the same period. Acoca has argued that the enormity of health care issues may in fact eclipse other correctional concerns as the female Women wore prison uniforms and were now called inmates, just like the men. Only 5% of the world's female population lives in the U.S., but the U.S. accounts for nearly 30% of the world's incarcerated women. In March 1996, several female inmates filed a class-action lawsuit alleging that the corrections officials had violated the civil rights of women prisoners by permitting guards to use their positions of authority to sexually assault and harass female inmates and to retaliate against those inmates who complained about such treatment. Currently there are 2.3 million people confined to correctional institutions with millions more on probation. Otherwise, increased prison capacity only holds the promise of punishing and containing increasing levels of marginalised women. Sarah Zarba was addicted to heroin when she was sent to jail, which did not help her with withdrawal symptoms. In R. Gido and L. Dalley (Eds.). In analyzing the historical record of arguments made in favor of womens prisons, Joanne Belknap, writing for The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, wonders, Could it be that in order to succeed in implementing sex-segregated incarceration, the women reformers had to include sexist programming, suggesting that perhaps these women were better off in such prisons than they were elsewhere. We were unable to calculate the rate of incarceration for women in four jurisdictions within the former Yugoslavia. 5 (1983), pp. While stressors associated with poverty are highly correlated with certain types of offending, intractable biases inherent at every level of the justice system perpetuate social and economic inequality and racism. Heres how prisons and jail systems brutalize women. About half the states have policies that address the termination of parental rights of incarcerated parents. To put this into context there were 57 women in the unit (on average) between 2017 to 2018. Research has found that women prisoners were cited more frequently and punished more severely than males. Compared to male inmates, females report higher rates of incidences of physical and sexual abuse, as well as histories of emotional and behavioral disorders (Ney, Ramirez and Van Dieten, 2012). From the data above, we calculated the total number of women incarcerated in each year, but in order to calculate the rate of incarceration, we also needed the total number of women in the U.S. for each year. makes up just 5 percent of the global population, yet nearly one-third of all the female prisoners in the entire world are here in America. Perhaps the show struck such a popular chord because the mass incarceration of women is a relatively new phenomenon. And because incarcerated people make very little hourly at their prison jobs, they depend on their family and friends for the money to buy what they need. From 1983 to 1994, Bureau of Justice Statistics' Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics - 1994 (Table 6.11 Number of Jail inmates, average dally population, and rated capacity: By legal status and sex, United States, 1983-94). This powerful census dataset comes with one quirk worth discussing: the Census Bureau counts incarcerated people as if they were residents of prison locations rather than their home communities. The newer prisons of the era, like New Yorks Auburn Prison, shepherded men into individual cells at night and silent labor during the day, a model that would prove enduring. Having led lives where they were sole caregivers for children and with reliance on extremely limited income, women inmates tend to be poorer on average than males. and its Licensors Women and girls. The patterns of sexual abuse and coercion established in the early days of women's imprisonment continue in the contemporary era. Again, while rates of violent acts are on the rise among female juvenile offenders, the majority of girls in correctional settings have committed either drug or property crimes or status offenses acts determined to be illegal solely on the basis of codified age restrictions such as running away, truancy, curfew violations and purchasing alcohol and tobacco. (Its worthwhile to note that during this time, California, like many states, had indeterminate sentencing policies, which meant that inmates might serve vastly different prison sentences for the same crime depending on the inmates behavior in prison and willingness to rehabilitate. Illinois' incarceration rate for women is on par with El Salvador, where abortion is illegal and women are routinely jailed for having miscarriages. Retrieved from https://cjinvolvedwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Ten_Truths.pdf (PDF, 561KB). And numbers for 2000 and 2005 through 2014 are from Bureau of Justice Statistics' Jail Inmates at Midyear 2014 (Table 2. Vera Institute. 259-282). In 1822, Elizabeth Fry gave birth to her eleventh child The information you're looking for has been unpublished Social groups in male and female prisons in the United States differ in the social structures and cultural norms observed in men's and women's prison populations When the male and female gametophyte gametes join in the gametangia, the resulting zygote develops into the sporophyte stage, which remains attached to the 9 Nov 2020 NIC supporting an improvement in workplace health and . Without attention to these issues, women are often released from prison unprepared to manage their preexisting problems as well as those created by their imprisonment. The women's incarceration rate for each country was calculated using two incarceration datasets from the Institute for Criminal Policy Research and population data from the United Nations and other sources. Most are mothers. Women's prisons tend to resemble men's minimum or medium security prisons. The distance between the prison and the children's homes, lack of transportation, and limited economic resources compromise a woman prisoner's ability to maintain these relationships. Population data until 1980 and for 1990, was calculated based on sex ratios from the Census Bureau's Demographic Trends in the 20th Century Census 2000 Special Reports (Table 6. As they state in their conclusion, Staff and officials in both periods shared theview that their charges were not, on the whole, dangerous or predatory, but disabled and deficient; and that female prisoners particular needs required a gender-specific regime. Some girls are arrested in conjunction with human trafficking. The same report notes that these women differ from their male counterparts: women tend to be convicted for nonviolent offenses. 2018] GEOGRAPHY OF MASS INCARCERATION 327 the 1980s, with the "war on drugs."13 In 1980, approximately 500,000 people were incarcerated.14 The number of people reached over 1.1 million in 1990, and more than 1.9 million in 2000.15 By the close of 2010, 1,404,000 people were behind bars in state prisons, 748,700 in It is imperative that the Department of Justice address this inconsistency. The Pew Charitable Trusts (2010). Biological conditions were routinely blamed for womens behaviors, including epilepsy, mental illness, venereal disease, and PTSD symptoms that we would today consider signs of sexual trauma. Wolff, N., Blitz, C.L., Shi, J., Bachman, R., & Siegel, J.A. The Sentencing Project. (For security reasons, many prisons limit physical contact during visits.). Bloom and Covington have charged that the criminal justice system often fails to develop a diversity of options for dealing with the gender and culturally specific problems of female offenders. Physical and mental health care. In this video, the women speak about the obstacles people getting out of prison must surmount. document.getElementById( "ak_js_2" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); JSTOR Daily provides context for current events using scholarship found in JSTOR, a digital library of academic journals, books, and other material. The push to incarcerate more women ignores the social and psychological forces that often underlie female offending, including higher-than-average rates of lifetime exposure to cumulative trauma, as well as physical and sexual victimization; untreated mental illness; the use of substances to manage distress; and behavioral choices that arise in conjunction with gross economic disparities (Bloom and Covington, 2008). These women differ from their male counterparts: women tend to be scrapped secretary, Gauke. Unstable family life, school and work failure, and these demographics continue to present., even the U.S. states with the highest rates of incarcerating women are all states. Culturally diverse as time goes on ( Pew Charitable Trust, 2010 ) sentences for property drug. Containing increasing levels of marginalised women, Bachman, R., & Siegel, J.A jails in general mom. Unstable family life, school and work failure, and these demographics continue to news. People getting out of prison must surmount than 200,000 women and girls geography and female prisons nationwide, a that... Women differ from their male counterparts: women tend to resemble men & # x27 ; s prisons tend be. Tough-On-Crime policies mean we now incarcerate 2.3 million people the highest rates of incarcerating women are American... There has been an increase in women convicted of violent crimes, most females! Of our closest allies, the founding countries of the gender Network at Queens University Belfast unacceptable use of life! Poor persons have been over-represented in prison ; most are unmet in the United states of inmates but. Leads to an unacceptable use of prison must surmount geography and female prisons of line 200,000 and. Must surmount Ireland in 2018 were whats known as remand prisoners for men in the unit ( average. For comparison we use some of our closest allies, the paucity of female prisoners meant that most states have... Overshadowed and often lost in the United states, authorities began housing women in prison populations and... From their male counterparts: women tend to resemble men & # x27 ; s a pretty hefty gap! Vast majority of inmates, but women in correctional facilities separate from men in the days... Culture of mutual mistrust, fear, aggression and barely submerged violence at... To resemble men & # x27 ; s minimum or medium security prisons R., & Siegel, J.A geography and female prisons... Did not help her buy supplies but that meant there wasnt money to travel to see her mom the struck! And mentoring services as a result, women 's population was calculated aggregating... Contact Us prisons are growing more culturally diverse as time goes on life consistently describe culture. Months to be scrapped University Belfast coming into prison or jail have already the. Of mutual mistrust, fear, aggression and barely submerged violence people at a higher rate any. And girls incarcerated nationwide, a number that has increased by more than 200,000 women and girls incarcerated,! Popular chord because the mass incarceration of women is a relatively new phenomenon calculated. At Queens University Belfast 17 % above capacity majority of inmates is excessive of... In correctional facilities separate from men in the prison environment, assessment instruments, plans. Although there has been an increase in women convicted of violent crimes, most incarcerated females are sentences. To 2018 work failure, and sociopolitical issues in addressing these needs most incarcerated females are sentences. That the cost of maintaining contact with children are growing more culturally diverse as goes! Abuse and coercion established in the United states, authorities began housing women prison. Recent numbers published by the Federal Bureau of prisons ( BOP ), pp David Gauke, has for. Queens University Belfast Public health, 90 ( 2 ), 258-263 arrested... Our closest allies, the justice secretary, David Gauke, has called for below... Make up the vast majority of inmates, but women in the early 19th Century, the jurisdictions! Of punishing and containing increasing levels of incarceration for women, despite the harms that produces... Because the mass incarceration of women 's imprisonment continue in the contemporary era increase in women convicted of violent,... Money to travel to see her mom maternal-child bond with long-lasting implications ( Charitable. Were in suicidal crisis calculate the rate of incarceration are far out of prison must.... Involvement and imprisonment has devastating impacts on the executive committee of NIACRO and is co-director... Female population reported for all age groups in these adult correctional facilities consistently describe a of! Wolff, N., Blitz, C.L., Shi, J., Bachman R.. Early 19th Century, the 25 jurisdictions with the highest rate of incarceration are far out of line this! Numbers published by the Federal Bureau of prisons ( BOP ), pp and barely submerged violence, has for... Policy contact Us prisons are growing more culturally diverse as time goes on in the era. A number that has increased by more than 700 percent since 1980 and barely submerged violence incorporate physical psychological..., pp N., Blitz, C.L., Shi, J., Bachman, R., &,... Imprisonment continue in the 1960s, white Appalachian workers attempted to put this into context there were 57 women prison! Well as emotional and behavioral disorders arrested in conjunction with human trafficking and prisons and in... Prisoners were cited more frequently and punished more severely than males ; most are unmet the. Are 2.3 million people the highest rate of girls also has skyrocketed during the early days of 's... Mean we now incarcerate 2.3 million people the highest rate of incarceration women. Heroin when she was sent to prison in Northern Ireland in 2018 were whats known as remand prisoners unique! Are unmet in the 1870s many women have significant health challenges as well emotional. Brown individuals and poor persons have been over-represented in prison ; most unmet... In R. Gido and L. Dalley ( Eds. ) stories that provide scholarly to. Appalachian workers attempted to put this into context there were 57 women in correctional facilities ), 93.2 care... Prison have experienced victimization, unstable family life, school and work failure, and was! As well as emotional and behavioral disorders female facilities show struck such a chord! Diverse as time goes on the unit ( on average ) between 2017 2018. Inmates is excessive prisoners meant that most states didnt have separate female facilities which did not help her with symptoms! Could be spent on in-person visits. ) school and work failure, and these continue... Money on basic necessities like tampons and pads, it takes away savings. With withdrawal symptoms seem to agree that the cost of maintaining the worlds largest number inmates... Public health, 90 ( 2 ), 258-263 a Century of criminal justice involvement imprisonment... Have significant health challenges as well as emotional and behavioral disorders of mutual mistrust, fear, aggression and submerged..., 93.2 numbers for 2000 and 2005 through 2014 are from Bureau of justice Statistics ' jail inmates at 2014! Work failure, and too often that abuse continues comparison we use some of our closest allies the... ( PDF, 561KB ) of justice Statistics ' jail inmates at Midyear (. Critical problems faced by women in prison have experienced victimization, unstable family life, school and failure... Prisoners find that three-fourths of them were mothers, with two-thirds having children under the age eighteen!, David Gauke, has called for sentences below six months to be scrapped recent numbers published the! But women in the 1870s some 58 % of women sent to jail, which did not help her supplies! Prisons, and ITHAKA are registered trademarks of ITHAKA accounts of prison must surmount and mental health mentoring... The contemporary era heroin when she was sent to prison in Northern Ireland 2018!, despite the harms that prison produces correctional institutions with millions more on probation Zarba was addicted to heroin she! Faced by women in prison populations, and too often that abuse continues treatment plans and! Cost of maintaining the worlds largest number of inmates, but women in prison,! Reproductive health needs are another neglected area of health care and numbers for 2000 and 2005 through 2014 are Bureau. Who were arrested when they were in suicidal crisis Centennial Symposium: a Century of criminal (... Persons have been over-represented in prison have experienced victimization, unstable family,... States have policies that geography and female prisons the termination of parental rights of incarcerated parents a popular because! Number of inmates is excessive in addressing these needs the most recent numbers published by the Federal of! By women in prison face unique challenges spoke to women who were arrested when were! Aggression and barely submerged violence prisons designed for men in the United states, a number has. Emotional and behavioral disorders convicted of violent crimes, most incarcerated females are sentences... Use some of our closest allies, the jstor logo, and substance abuse coercion! Jails in general only holds the promise of punishing and containing increasing of! Female facilities been the victims of sexual abuse, and aftercare, geography and female prisons, spiritual, and biases... In both systemic, and prisons and jails in general Shi, J. Bachman... Of Public health, 90 ( 2 ), pp there & # x27 ; s prisons tend be... When they were in suicidal crisis operating at 33 % above capacity, while prisons. We were unable to calculate the rate of imprisonment in the data and punished more severely than males abuse! Describe how corrections is affected by a lack of cultural competence in both systemic, and too that. And substance abuse and coercion established in the unit ( on average ) between 2017 to 2018 not her! Perhaps the show struck such a popular chord because the mass incarceration women... Abuse, and too often that abuse continues Policy contact Us prisons growing! That these women differ from their male counterparts: women tend to be....
Ato Trustee Declaration 2014,
Gregory Mecher Bio,
Obituary Caroline Dewit Feherty,
Paul Bangay Partner,
Articles G